R101 was one of a pair of solid British air vessels completed in 1929 as part of a UK government program to develop civilian aircraft capable of long-distance routes within the United Kingdom. It was designed and built by a team appointed by the Water Ministry and effectively competes with the government-funded R100 but is personally designed and built. When built it was the world's largest aircraft with a length of 731 ft (223 m), and it was not surpassed by other rigid airplanes filled with hydrogen until Hindenburg flew seven years later.
After several experimental flights and subsequent modifications to increase lift capacity, including an extension of the 46ft (14m) airship, it crashed on October 5, 1930 in France during its inaugural trip abroad, killing 48 of 54 people in it. Among the dead passengers were Lord Thomson, the Air Minister who had started programs, senior government officials, and almost all balloon designers from Royal Airship Works. The R101 accident effectively ended the construction of British aircraft, and was one of the worst plane crash of the 1930s. The loss of lives of over 36 killed in the very common Hindenburg disaster of 1937, although fewer than 52 were killed in the French military Dixmude in 1923, and 73 were killed when the USS < i> Akron crashed in the Atlantic Ocean off the coast of New Jersey in 1933.
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The R101 was built as part of a UK government initiative to develop aircraft to provide passenger and mail transport from the UK to the farthest parts of the United Kingdom, including India, Australia and Canada, as this distance is too large to heavier than air. aircraft of that period. The Burney scheme of 1922 has proposed a civilian aircraft development program to be undertaken by a Vickers subsidiary established exclusively with British government support, but when the 1923 General Election brought Labor government Ramsay MacDonald to propel the new Air Minister, Lord Thomson, to formulate the Scheme Imperial Airship in its place. It's called to build two experimental airships: one, R101, to be designed and built under the direction of the Air Ministry, and the other, R100, will be built by Vickers's subsidiary, Aviation Security Company, under a fixed price contract. This led to the nickname of "Socialist Planes" and "Aircraft Capitalists".
In addition to the construction of two airships, the scheme involves the establishment of the necessary infrastructure for aircraft operations; for example, mooring poles used in Cardington, Ismailia, Karachi and Montreal should be designed and constructed and meteorological forecasting networks are extended and improved.
The specifications for the airships were compiled by the Air Ministry committee whose members include Regad Leadd Colmore Leader and Lieutenant Colonel Vincent Richmond, both of whom have extensive experience with aircraft, especially non-rigid ones. This is called for airships not less than five million cubic feet (140,000 mÃ,³) of structural capacity and weight still not exceeding 90 tons, giving "disposable lift" nearly 62 tons. With a required allowance of about 20 tons for a service load consisting of a crew of about 40, these stores and water ballasts mean a possible fuel and passenger load of 42 tons. Accommodation for 100 passengers and tankage for 57 hours of flight will be provided and continuous shipping speed of 63 mph (101 km/h) and a maximum speed of 70 mph (110 km/h) is called for. In wartime, air ships are expected to carry 200 soldiers or perhaps five parasite fighters.
Vickers's design team is led by Barnes Wallis, who has extensive experience in rigid aircraft designs and later became famous for the Wellington bomber's geodetic framework and the bouncing bomb. His principal assistant ("Chief Calculator"), Nevil Shute Norway, later known as Nevil Shute novelist, gave his explanation of the design and construction of two airships in his autobiography, Slide Rules: Engineer Autobiography , first published in 1954. Shute's book characterizes the R100 as a pragmatic and conservative design, and R101 is wasteful and overly ambitious, but one goal of having two design teams is to test different approaches, with the R101 deliberately intended. to expand existing technology boundaries. Shute later admitted that much of his criticism of the R101 team could not be justified.
A very optimistic timetable was made, with the construction of a government-built aircraft beginning in July 1925 and completed in July next, with a trial flight to India planned for January 1927. In fact, extensive experiments conducted out delayed the start of production of R101 to early 1927. The R100 was also delayed, and did not fly until late 1929.
Maps R101
Design and development
All airship programs are under the direction of the Airship Development Director (DAD), Captain Peregrine Fellowes Group, with Colmore acting as his deputy. Lieutenant-Colonel Richmond was appointed Director of Design: later he was credited as "Assistant Director of Airship Development (Technical)" with Squadron Leader Michael Rope as his assistant, and Director of Flying and Training, responsible for all operational issues for both airships, is Major GH Scott , which has developed the design of mooring poles to be built. It was based on Royal Airship Works in Cardington, Bedfordshire, built by Shorts during the First World War and has been employed by Admiralty to copy and refine the latest German designs of captured airships. It was nationalized in 1919 but after the loss of R38 (later in the process of being transferred to the US as ZR2) naval naval construction was halted and had been placed on the basis of care and maintenance.
R101 will be built only after extensive research and test program is completed. This is done by the National Physical Laboratory (NPL). As part of this program, the Air Ministry is funding the repair and flying costs of R33 to collect data on structural loads and airflow around large aircraft. This data is also available for Vickers; both airships have the same elongated tear-drop shape, unlike previous airship designs. Hilda Lyon, who was responsible for aerodynamic development, found that this shape yielded a minimum drag amount. Safety is a major concern and this will have an important influence on machine choice.
Initial decisions have been made to construct the main structure of most of the stainless steel rather than light alloys such as duralumin. The main structure design is shared between Cardington and Boulton and Paul aircraft manufacturers, who have extensive experience in the use of steel and have developed innovative techniques to form steel strips into structural parts. Working to outline designs prepared with the help of data provided by NPLs, stress calculations were performed by Cardington. This information is then supplied to J. D. North and his team at Boulton and Paul, who designed the actual metal. The individual girder is made by Boulton and Paul in Norwich and transported to Cardington where they are locked together. This scheme for prefabricated structures entails manufacturing tolerance and is fully successful, since the ease of R101 is finally extended to witness. Before any contract for signed metal, the entire bay consisting of a pair of 15-sided transverse ring frames and connected connecting joy beams are assembled at Cardington. After the assembly passed the loading test, the individual master beams are then tested for destruction. The structure of the fuselage was innovative: circular ring-shaped frames from earlier airships had been made with radial wire that met in the central hub, but no such buffer was used in R101, the frame was quite rigid in themselves. However, this resulted in the structure extending further into the envelope, thus limiting the size of the gas bag.
The specifications were made in 1924 by the Airships Safety Committee based on the weight estimates on existing rules for airframe strength. However, the Inspectorate of the Ministry of Water introduced a new set of rules for aircraft safety standards by the end of 1924 and compliance with these unformulated rules has been explicitly mentioned in individual specifications for each aircraft. This new rule calls for all lifting loads to be transmitted directly to the transverse frame instead of being taken through an elongated girder. The purpose behind this decision is to allow the emphasis of the framework to be fully calculated, rather than relying on empirically accumulated data, such as contemporary practice at the Zeppelin design office. Regardless of the implications for aircraft weight, one effect of this rule is forcing both teams to design a new system utilizing gas bags. The patented R101 patented gasbag, designed by Michael Rope, proved unsatisfactory, allowing gas pockets to soar, especially in bad weather. This causes the gas bag to become inflamed against the structure, causing a hole in the fabric. Another effect is that both R100 and R101 have relatively small amounts of longitudinal girder to simplify compression calculations.
R101 uses pre-doped linen panels for most of its coverings, rather than tying up unbound fabrics and then applying anesthesia to shrink them. To reduce the area of ​​unsupported fabric in the cover, R101 alternates the main longitudinal with a non-structural "reef boom" mounted on adjustable pole posts using a jack-jack to muffle the lid. Pre-doped fabrics proved unsatisfactory from the start, with the panel splitting due to moisture changes before the plane even left the warehouse.
There are other innovative design features. Previous ballast container has been made in the form of "trousers" skin, and one or other legs can be opened at the bottom with the release of the cable from the control car. In R101, extreme front and back ballast bags are of this type, and operated locally, but the main ballast is held in the tank connected by the pipe so that the ballast can be transferred from one to the other to change the trim of the aircraft by compressed air. Arrangements for the inner ventilation of the envelope, necessary both to prevent the accumulation of escaped hydrogen and also to equalize the pressure between the inside and outside, is also innovative. A series of flap-valves are located in the nose and stern of the airship cover (the people in the nose are clearly visible in the photo) to allow air to enter when the plane descends, while a series of vents are arranged around the circumference in the middle of the ship to allow air out during the climb.
Machine
Diesel engines are determined by the Air Ministry because they are intended for use on Indian routes, where it is thought that high temperatures will make gasoline an unacceptable fire hazard due to the low flash point. The explosion of gasoline has been the leading cause of death in the loss of R38 in 1921.
The initial calculation is based on the use of seven six-cylinder Beardmore Typhoon six-cylinder engines that are expected to reach 2.200 kg (1,000 kg) and deliver 600 bhp (450 kW) each. When the development of this machine proved impractical, the use of the eight-cylinder Beardmore Tornado was proposed instead. This is a machine developed by Beardmore by combining two four-cylinder engines originally developed for rail use. In March 1925 it was expected to weigh 3,200 pounds (1,500 kg) and provide 700 bhp (520 kW) each. Due to the weight increase of each machine, it was decided to use five, so the overall power was reduced from 4,200 bhp (3,100 kW) to 3,500 bhp (2,600 kW).
Unexpectedly, the severe torsional resonance of the crankshaft is found above 950 rpm, limiting the engine to a maximum of 935 rpm, providing an output of only 650 bhp (485 kW) with a continuous power rating at 890 rpm from 585 bhp (436 kW). The engine is also well above the weight estimate, at 4,773 Â £ (2,165 kg), more than double the original estimate. Some of the excess weight is the result of a failure to produce a satisfactory lightweight aluminum crankcase.
The initial intention was to install two machines with variable-pitch propellers in order to provide a backlash for maneuvering during docking. The torsional resonance also causes the hollow metal propeller of this inverting vane to develop a crack near the hub, and as a short term measurement one of the engines is equipped with fixed pitch turning vanes, consequently being dead weight under normal flight conditions. For the last flight of the aircraft, two engines were adapted in order to run backwards with a simple modification of the camshaft.
Each engine car also contains a 40-bhp (30-kW) Ricardo gasoline engine for use as a starter motor. Three of these also drive the generator to provide electricity when the plane is resting or flying at low speed: at normal flight speed the generator is driven by a constant variable speed windmill. Two other auxiliary machines push the compressor for compressed air fuel and ballast transfer systems. Before the last flight one of the gasoline engines was replaced by Beverly heavy oil machine. To reduce the risk of fire, the gas tank can be thrown away.
Diesel fuel is contained in the tank in transversal order, the majority of tanks have capacity of 224Ã, Â ° impÃ, galc (1.018Ã, l). Mechanisms are given to dispose of fuel directly from the tank in an emergency. By using the tank provided for heavy compensation when traveling with light passenger loads, a total fuel load of 10,000 galaxies (45,000 l) can be performed.
Crewing and control
In normal service, the R101 carries a crew of 42. It consists of two watches of 13 people under the watch attendant, this task is shared among the three main officers of the ship. In addition there are main navigators, meteorological officers, main coxswain, chief engineer, chief wireless officer and chief steward, who are not assigned to watches but are on duty as necessary, and four supernumeraries (three engineers and one radio operator) are available to provide supervisory assistance if needed, and an assistant flight attendant, a cook and a galley boy on duty as required between 6:30 and 21:30. The minimum crew requirement, as specified in the Aircraft Airworthiness Certificate, is 15 people.
The control car is occupied by watchdog watches and steering and height coxswains, each controlling the steering wheel and an elevator using a wheel similar to a ship's wheel. The engine is controlled individually by an engineer in each of the engine cars, orders are given by individual telegraphs for each car. It moves the indicator inside the engine car to signal the desired throttle settings and also sounds the bell to draw attention to the fact that the command has been sent.
Accommodation
Passenger accommodation spread over two decks in envelopes and as first designed including 50 passenger cabins for one, two, or four people, dining room for 60 people, two deck promenade with windows on the plane side, 5,500 square feet (510 m < soup> 2 ) and even a asbestos smoking room for 24 people. Most of the passenger space is on the upper deck, with a smoking room, kitchen and toilet, crew accommodation, as well as a chart room and a radio cabin on the lower deck. The control car was directly under the front of the lower deck and was reached by the staircase from the chart space.
The walls are made of linen fabric treated with white and gold. Severe austerity measures include rattan furniture and aluminum fork spoons. Light promenade window "Cellon" is not intended glass and a set is removed as part of the weight-saving measures later.
Operational history
Test
1929
The long process of inflating the gas bag R101 began on July 11, 1929 and finished on 21 September. With now air and loose aircraft tethered in the warehouse, it is now possible to carry out lift and cut tests. This is disappointing. A design conference held on June 17, 1929 had estimated a gross increase of 151.8 tons and total aircraft weight, including electrical installation, 105 tons. The actual figure proved to be a gross lift of 148.46 tons and weighs 113.6 tons. In addition, the aircraft was heavy, resulting from a tail surface that was well above the weight estimate. In this form, flights to India are not possible. Aircraft operation under tropical conditions is made more difficult by the loss of lift at high temperatures: the loss of lift power in Karachi is estimated at 11 tons for aircraft of R101 size.
On 2 October the press was invited to Cardington to see the finished aircraft. But weather conditions made it impossible to remove it from the warehouse until October 12, when it was run out by a land handling party of 400. The event attracted a large number of spectators, with the surrounding streets becoming a row of crowded cars. The tethered airship continues to attract viewers, and it is estimated that over a million people have traveled to Cardington to see R101 at the stake at the end of November.
The flight program is influenced by the Air Ministry's need to generate lucrative publicity, illustrating the political pressure that weighs on the program. Noà   «Atherstone, the first officer, commented in his diary on November 6." All the action and games of joy in this window before he got the Airworthiness Certificate were wrong, but no one in RAW [Royal Airship Works] have the courage to put their feet and insist on a free trial of pleasure-rides. "Atherstone's remark was an opportunity by a lunch held on the plane for a delegate to a conference on royal legislation, but there were several similar occasions.
R101 made its first flight on October 14th. After a brief connection at Bedford, the course was arranged for London, where he passed the Palace of Westminster, St Paul's Cathedral and City, back to Cardington after the flight lasted five hours 40 minutes. During this flight servo is not used, without difficulty experienced in controlling the aircraft. The second flight lasted nine hours 38 minutes followed on October 18 with Lord Thomson among passengers, after which R101 was briefly returned to the warehouse to allow some modifications to be made to the starting engine. The third flight which lasted seven hours 15 minutes was made on November 1, where it was flown in full force for the first time, recording a speed of 68.5 mph (110.2 km/h): even at full speed it was not found necessary to use servos control. During this flight, they visit Boulton and Paul work near Nottingham and also surround the Sandringham House, which is observed by kings and queens. On November 2, the first night flight was made, slipping a pole at 20:12 before heading south to fly over London and Portsmouth before attempting a speed test over 43Ã, mi (69 km) circuit over the Solent and Isle of Wight. This experiment was frustrated by the pipe damage on the two-engine cooling system, the problem was then solved by replacing the aluminum tube with copper. It was back to Cardington around 9:00 am, the belay operation ended in a minor accident, damaging one of the reef booms in the bow.
On November 8, a pure short flight for public relations purposes was made, carrying 40 passengers including the Mayor of Bedford and various officials. To accommodate this load, the aircraft is flown with only partial fuel and ballast load and pumped to a pressure height of 500Ã, ft (150 m). In Atherstone's words, it "staggered around Bedford for a few hours" before returning to the pole.
Two days later the wind began to rise and strong winds were expected. On November 11, the wind touched 83 mph (134 km/h), with a maximum gust of 89 mph (143 km/h). Although the behavior of ships on the pole leads to great satisfaction, there are some things to worry about. The movement of the ship has caused considerable movement of gasbags, a spike described by Coxswain "Sky" Hunt as about four inches (ten cm) from side to side and "much more" in a longitudinal way. This causes the gas bag to contaminate the frame, and the resulting friction causes the gas bag to hide in many places.
The sixth flight was conducted on November 14 to test modifications made to cooling systems and gas bag improvements, as well as carrying 32 passengers including 10 members of parliament with special interest in aviation and airline officials. led by Sir Sefton Brancker, Director of Civil Aviation.
On November 16 it was planned to conduct a demonstration flight for a 100-member parliamentary party, a scheme that Thomson had suggested in the hope that some would want to take advantage of the offer; if oversubscribed. The weather on that day was unprofitable, and the flight was rescheduled. The weather was then sunny, and the following day R101 slipped a pole at 10:33 to test the endurance, which was scheduled for at least thirty hours. R101 passes York and Durham before crossing the coast and flying over the North Sea to the north as far as Edinburgh, where it turns west toward Glasgow. At night a series of rotating experiments were made over the Irish Sea, after which the plane was flown south to fly over Dublin (the home town of Captain R101, Carmichael Irwin) before returning to Cardington via Anglesey and Chester. After some delay in finding Cardington due to fog, the R101 was secured to the mast at 17:14, after the flight lasted 30 hours 41 minutes. The only technical problem encountered during the flight was with the pump to transfer fuel, which was broken several times, although subsequent machine checks indicated that one was at the point of suffering a major bearing failure.
Flights for MPs have been rescheduled for 23 November. With barometric pressure, the low R101 does not have enough lift to carry 100 passengers, though all but minimal fuel is drained and the vessel is lightened by removing all unnecessary stores. The flight itself was canceled due to the weather, but not before the politicians arrived at Cardington: they depart and have lunch while the ship goes up on the pole, just kept in the air by a dynamic elevator produced by 45 mph (72 km)/h) of wind. After the R101 it remains on the pole until November 30, when the wind goes down enough for it to walk back into the shed.
While an initial flight test is underway, the design team checks the elevator problem. The study identified the possibility of weight savings of 3.16 tons. Heavy-weight measures include removing twelve double-berth cabins, removing the reef boom from nose to frame 1 and between frames 13 to 15 on the tail, replacing glass windows from the observation deck with Cellon, removing two water tank ballasts, and removing the servo mechanism for steering and elevators. Allowing the exit gas would add an extra 3.18 tons of lift, although Michael Rope considers this unwise, since there are thousands of objects exposed protruding from the blocks; blisters of gas bags should be prevented by wrapping them in strips of cloth. To further increase lift, additional capacity of 500,000 cuÃ, ft (14,000 m 3 ) can be installed. This will provide an additional nine tons of disposable. After consultation, all of these proposed steps are approved in December. Releasing the gas bag and weight-saving measures begin. Delivery by Boulton Paul from metal to extra bay is expected to take place in June.
1930
The outer coverings also pay attention. Inspection by Michael Rope and JWW Dyer, head of the Fabric Section at Cardington, conducted on January 20, 1930 revealed the serious damage of the fabric at the top of the plane in areas where rainwater had accumulated, and the decision was made to add the reinforcement band. along the entire envelope. Further tests conducted by Rope indicate that his strength has worsened worseningly. Specifically specified forces for coverings are strains violating 700 lb per foot run (10 kN/m): actual sample strength is 85 lb (1.24 kN/m) high. The load calculated at a speed of 76 mph (122 km/h) is 143 lb per foot run (2.09 kN/m). A further examination of the cover on June 2 found many small tears have evolved. An immediate decision is taken to replace the pre-doped cover with a new cover to be doped after installation. This will take place after a planned flight for June with the aim of showing R101 to the public at the Hendon Air Show. For this flight, the cover will be further strengthened. Confirmation of the closing situation occurred on the morning of June 23rd when R101 came out of the warehouse. It had been on pole for less than an hour in moderate winds when an alarming ripple movement was observed and shortly thereafter, 140Ã, ft (43 m) tears appeared on the right side of the plane. It was decided to fix this at the stake and to add the reinforcement band. This is done at the end of the day but the next day, the second split, shorter, occurs. This was handled in the same way, and it was decided that if the reinforcing bands were added to the fixed area the scheduled appearance of the RAF contest in Hendon could be made.
R101 made three flights in June, with a total duration of 29 hours 34 minutes. On June 26, a brief evidentiary flight was made, controlled, no longer operated by servo, described as "strong and fully adequate". At the end of this flight R101 is found "flying heavy" and two tons of fuel oil should be discarded to lighten the air for tethered. This was initially associated with changes in air temperature during flight. In the next two days, R101 made two flights, the first taking part in the rehearsals for the RAF display at Hendon and the second going on the screen itself. These flights reveal problems with lift, enough weights are needed. Gas bag checks reveal a large number of holes, the result of letting out of gas bags allowing them to rotted projection on the skeleton main beam.
Concern also arises over the possibility of gas loss through the valve, which is an innovative design by Michael Rope. The aircraft valve is intended primarily to vent the gas automatically if the pressure inside the bag rises to the point where the bag may break; they are also used to adjust the lifting for handling. Some concerns were expressed over the opening of the valves because either on rolling planes or local low pressure caused by the flappering outer cover, but after their FW McWade operation inspection, the inspector of the Air Inspector's Department at Cardington, concluded that their operation was satisfactory and they could not be the cause of the loss gas is significant.
As an experimental aircraft, the R101 has operated under a temporary "Flying License", McWade's responsibility. On July 3, past his immediate superior, he wrote to the Director of Aeronautical Inspection, Lieutenant Colonel HWS Outram, declaring his unwillingness to recommend an extension of permission or granting the full Airworthiness Certificate that would be required. before the plane can fly in the airspace of another country. The concern is that padding on the skeleton is inadequate to protect gas bags from blisters, harvests that have been issued so that they are "hard against longitudinal girders", and that spikes from gas bags will tend to loosen pads, making them ineffective. He also expressed doubts about the use of padding, considering it makes airframe examination more difficult and will also tend to trap moisture, making the problem with corrosion more likely. Outram, who knew little about the airplane, reacted to this in consultation with Colmore, now Director of Airship Development, from whom he received a convincing answer. The problem is not taken any further.
R101 enters its warehouse for an extension on 29 June. At the same time, the gas pockets were given a total overhaul, two of the engines being replaced by a customized engine capable of running backwards, and most of the covers were replaced. The original cover was left between the 3rd and 5th frames and in the two chambers on the tail. These closing parts have been doped after installation and are therefore considered satisfactory, although an examination by McWade has found that some areas where reinforcements have been affixed with rubber solutions are greatly attenuated; this area is further strengthened, using dope as an adhesive.
A schedule was made by the Air Ministry for R101 to fly to India in early October, so that the flight will be made during the Imperial Conference to be held in London. The entire program is intended to improve communications with the Empire, and it is expected that aviation will generate favorable publicity for the aircraft program. The last test flight of the R101 was originally scheduled for September 26, 1930, but strong winds delayed the move from the warehouse until October 1. That night, R101 slipped a pole for its only test flight before leaving for India. It lasts 16 hours 51 minutes and is done in near ideal weather conditions; due to the failure of the oil cooler in one machine, it is impossible to perform a full speed test. The flight was limited due to the need to prepare aircraft for flights to India.
Despite the lack of endurance test and full speed and the fact that a precise investigation of the consequences of aerodynamic extension has not been fully completed by the NPL, the Certificate of Airworthiness was issued on 2 October, the Inspectorate expressed their complete satisfaction with the conditions of R101 and the standards on which remedial work has been performed. The actual certificate was handed over to H. C. Irwin, the captain of the ship, only on the day of his departure to India.
Last flight
R101 departed from Cardington on the night of October 4, 1930 for the intended purpose of Karachi (later part of British India) via a refueling stop at IsmaÃÆ'¯lia in Egypt under the command of Lieutenant Aviation Carmichael Irwin. Among the 12 passengers were Lord Thomson, Secretary of State for the Air; Sir Sefton Brancker, Director of Civil Aviation; Squadron Leader William Palstra, RAAF Air Liaison Staff (ALO) to the British Air Ministry; Airship Development Director Reginald Colmore; and both, Lieutenant Colonel V. C. Richmond and Michael Rope.
The weather forecast on the morning of October 4 is generally favorable, predicting south to southwest winds between 20 and 30 m.p.h. (32 and 48 km/h) at 2,000 feet (610 m) in northern France, with improving conditions in southern France and the Mediterranean Sea. Although the mid-day forecast indicates some downturn in the situation, it is not considered alarming enough to cancel the planned voyage. A planned course will take R101 to London, Paris, and Toulouse, across the French coast near Narbonne.
Heavy rain began to fall when, at dusk, with all the crew and passengers aboard, R101 prepared for departure. Under the dazzling spotlight, the water ballast spill to bring airship to the trim is evident. Booth Leader Squadron, commander of R100 oversees the departure of the tower observation gallery and estimates that two tons have been removed from the nose and a further ton of tanks midships. R101 discharged from the pole at 18:36 GMT to cheer from the crowd that had gathered to watch the event, gently backed away from the tower and, when a ton of ballast was again removed, the machines opened up to about half the power and the plane slowly started climbing, initially head northeast to fly over Bedford before making a 180 ° turn to the port to pass north of Cardington.
At around 19:06 the duty engineer in the rear car engine reported a clear oil pressure issue. At 19:16 he turned off the engine, and after a brief discussion with the Chief Engineer, it was decided to change the oil gauge, nothing wrong with the machine. This work was put in hand, and the machine was finally turned on again at 22:56, when R101 was above the English Channel. With one engine the stop air speed is reduced by about 4 mph to 58.7 mph
At 19:19, after flying 29 miles (47 km) but still only 8 mi (13 km) from Cardington, a course was set for London. At 20:01, R101, now more than Potters Bar, made a second report for Cardington, confirming intentions to proceed through London, Paris and Narbonne, but did not mention the engine problem. By then, the weather had worsened, and the rain was torrential. Fly about 800Ã, ft (240 m) above the ground, past Alexandra Palace before turning a little way in the famous Metropolitan Cow Market tower in north Islington, and from there Shoreditch crossed the Thames River around the Isle of Dogs, past Royal Naval College in Greenwich at 20:28. The progress of airship, flying with its nose pointing about 30 degrees to the right of its track, was observed by many people who hit the rain to watch it pass by above.
A meteorological situation update was received at 20:40. The estimate has deteriorated, a south-western wind up to 50 mph (80 km/h) with predictable clouds and precipitation for northern France, and similar conditions in central France. That this raises concerns on the board is indicated by the request for more detailed information, which is transmitted at 21:19, where time R101 is near Hawkhurst in Kent. It is possible that alternative courses are being considered. At 21:35 R101 crossed the English coast near Hastings and at 21:40 sent a progress report back to Cardington, saying that rainwater recovery into the ballast tank was going on but then again did not report the engine problem. At 22:56 the back engine starts again. Currently the wind has risen to about 44 mph (71 km/h) with strong gusts, but further meteorological reports are received as soon as the plane crossed the coast has been exhilarating about the weather conditions in southern Paris.
The French coast is crossed at Point de St Quentin at 23:36 GMT, about 20 miles (32 km) east of the intended landing. A new course is set to bring R101 to the top of Orly, based on wind forecast 245 degrees and speed 35 mph (56 km/h). The intended route will take R101 four miles west of Beauvais, but the estimates of wind speed and direction are inaccurate, as a result of line 101 being east of the intended route. This error will become clear when, at about 1am, R101 passes Poix-de-Picardie, a typical hilltop town that will be easily recognized by the Navigation Officer, Sqdn. Leader E.L. Johnston. Thus, R101 changes direction: the new course will take it directly to the Beauvais Ridge 770 ft (230 m), a region famous for volatile wind conditions.
At 2 o'clock the clock was changed, Second Officer Maurice Steff took command of Irwin. R101 at this point "fly heavy", relies on a dynamic elevator generated by forward air velocity to maintain altitude, estimated by the Investigation Board at least 1,000 feet (300 m) above the ground. At about 2:07 pm R101 went diving from which he slowly recovered, possibly losing about 450Ã, ft (140 m). Therefore, Rigger S. Church, which returns to the crew for duty, is sent forward to release the emergency, locally-controlled emergency ballast bag. The first dive was steep enough to cause A. H. Leech, Foreman Engineer from Cardington, to be thrown from his seat in the smoking room and wake Chief Electrician Arthur Disley, who fell asleep in the dressing room next to the chart cabin. When the plane recovered, Disley was awakened by Chief Coxswain, G. W. Hunt, who then went to the crew's crew, calling "We come down, the boys" in warning. When this happens, the plane performs a second dive and orders to reduce speed to slow (450 rpm) are received in the engine cars. Before Engineer A. J. Cook, who was in charge of a left-handed midships machine car, was able to answer, the plane crashed into the ground on the edge of the wood beyond Allonne 2.5 miles (4.0 km) southwest of Beauvais and immediately burned. The reason for reducing speed is a matter of conjecture because this will cause the plane to lose its dynamic lifting power and adopt a nose-down attitude. The subsequent investigation estimated the impact speed of about 13 mph (21 km/h), with the plane between 15 Â ° and 25 Â ° below the nose.
A total of 46 of the 54 passengers and crew were killed immediately. Both the Church and Rigger W. G. Radcliffe survived the accident but later died at a hospital in Beauvais, bringing the total number of deaths to 48.
The bodies were returned to England and on Friday October 10, a funeral was held at St Paul's Cathedral while the bodies were in a state in Westminster Hall at the Palace of Westminster. Nearly 90,000 people queued to pay their respects: at one time the queue was half a mile, and the hall stayed open until 00:35 to receive them all. The next day, a funeral procession moved the bodies to Euston station through crowded streets with mourners. The corpse was then taken to Cardington village for burial in a public graveyard at the funeral of St Mary's Church. A monument was later erected, and a charred Royal Air Force roundabout that had been flown by R101 on its tail, along with a memorial tablet, in the center of the church.
On October 1, 1933, the Sunday before the third anniversary of the accident, a memorial to the dead near the crash site was inaugurated by Nationale 1 route near Allonne. There are also warning markers on the actual crash site.
Official question
The Inquiry trial was led by Liberal politician Sir John Simon, assisted by Lieutenant Colonel John Moore-Brabazon and Professor C E Inglis. The investigation, which was held in public, opened on 28 October and spent 10 days taking evidence from witnesses, including Professors Leonard Bairstow and Dr. Hugo Eckener from the Zeppelin company, before being closed to allow Bairstow and NPL to perform more detailed calculations based on wind tunnel tests on a special model R101 in its final form. This evidence was presented for three days ended on 5 December 1930. The final report was presented on 27 March 1931.
The investigation examined most aspects of the design and construction of R101 in detail, with particular emphasis on the gas bag and associated equipment and valves, although very little examination of the problems that had been encountered with the cover was made. All technical witnesses provide unquestioning support for air plane airplane before flight to India. Inspections were also made of various operational decisions that had been made before the plane made its final voyage.
The likelihood of the accident due to prolonged loss of gas caused by leakage or loss through the valve is discounted because this explanation does not explain the behavior of the aircraft in its final moments: moreover the fact that the officer on duty has changed the clock regularly implying that there is no specific cause for alarm few minutes before the accident. Changes in watches have recently been considered a possible contributory factor for accidents, as the new crew will not have time to get the feel of the aircraft. It was also considered most unlikely that the accident was solely caused by a sudden downdraught. Sudden and catastrophic failure is seen as the only explanation. The investigation discounted the possibility of the failure of airframe structures. The only major fracture found in the ruins is at the back of the new skeleton extension but it is considered that this has happened to the impact or is more likely caused by the intense heat from the next fire. The investigation came to the conclusion that the tears may have developed in the front cover, this in turn caused one or more of the advanced gas bags to fail. The evidence presented by Professor Bairstow suggests that this would cause R101 to be too much for the elevator to be repaired.
The cause of the fire did not occur. Some hydrogen airships fall under similar circumstances without burning. The investigation thought that it was likely that the spark from the plane's electricity triggered the release of hydrogen, causing an explosion. Other suggestions include ignition of calcium flares brought in control cars on contact with water, electrostatic discharge or fire in one of the engine cars, which carries gasoline for the starter machine. What is certain is that he almost immediately burned and burned great. In extreme heat, fuel oil from junk is soaked to the ground and burns; it was still on fire when first-party officials arrived in the air the next day.
The investigation considers that "it is impossible to avoid the conclusion that R101 will not start for India on the night of October 4 if no public policy issue is considered making it highly desirable that he should do it", but considers this to be the result of all concerned who wants to prove value of R101, rather than direct intervention from above.
Aftermath
R101 was the end of England's attempt to create light aircraft in pre-war times. Thos W Ward Ltd of Sheffield rescued what they could from the ruins, the work continued through 1931. Although it was determined that no ruins should be stored for souvenirs, Wards made small dishes impressed with the words "Metal from R101" often they do with metal from ships or industrial structures they work on.
The Zeppelin Company buys five tons of duralumin from the wreck. Its competitor, R100, despite a more successful development program and a satisfactory transatlantic test flight, though not entirely trouble-free, was smoothed as soon as the R101 crashed. The R100 remains in hangar at Cardington for a year while the fate of the Imperial Airship program is decided. In November 1931, the R100 was sold for scrap and split.
At that time the Imperial Airship Scheme was a controversial project, in part because of the large amount of public money involved and also because some doubted the usefulness of the aircraft. Furthermore, there is controversy about the benefits of R101. The very bad relationship between the R100 team and both Cardington and the Air Ministry created a climate of hatred and jealousy that may have sagged. Neville Shute's autobiography was authorized by Sunday Graphic in his publication in 1954, and misleadingly promoted as containing a sensational revelation, and the accuracy of his account was the cause of the dispute among aircraft historians. Barnes Wallis later expressed harsh criticism of the design although this may partially reflect personal animosity. Nevertheless, Richmond's list of "overwhelming arrogance" was the main cause of the disaster, and the fact that he himself did not design it as anything else, said little to his objectivity.
On November 27, 2014, 84 years after the disaster, Baroness Smith of Basildon, along with members of the Airship Heritage Trust, launched a memorial plaque to R101 at St Stephens Hall at the Palace of Westminster.
Popular culture
- The Doctor Who audio play Hurricane Warning is set above R101 during the trip, with the new counterpart Doctor Eight Charley Pollard being a passenger on the plane; his time with the Doctor left him in conflict when he realized that the historical record shows that Charley intended to die in R101 if he did not save him.
- The R101 is particularly prominent in John G. Fuller's The Airmen Who Would Not Die book, which tells of the psychic visions of disaster years ago by the medium of Eileen J. Garrett, and the calling of spirits with officers who died after the disaster.
- R101 is the subject of rock opera ("songstory") Curly's Airships (2000) by Judge Smith.
- R101 has been featured in the TV series, Britain's Largest Machine with Chris Barrie on National Geographic Channel.
- The Iron Maiden song "Empire of the Clouds" compiled by Bruce Dickinson and featured on the 2015 album The Book of Souls is about R101 and its last flight.
- The Monty Python Sketch "Historical Impersonations" feature Napoleon (Terry Jones) as a disaster of R101. In the 1991 novel of John Crowley's "Great Work of Time," the destruction (or non-destruction) of R101 is one of the important events that occur (or does not occur) to mark a particular branching point from the possibility of an ending timestream. novel.
Specifications (R101 after extension)
General characteristics
- Crew: 42 (last flight) (minimum 15)
- Length: 777Ã, ft 0 in (236.83 m)
- Diameter: 131Ã, ft 4 in (40.03 m)
- Height: 140Ã, ft (43 m)
- Volume: 5,509,753 cuÃ, ft (156,018.8 m 3 )
- Empty weight: 257,395 pounds (116,752 kg)
- Useful appointments: 55,268 pounds (25,069 kg) 5 Bear Beardmore 8-cylinder inline Diesel (2 reverse) with two propellers of 16 feet (4.9 m) propeller, 585 hp (436 kW) respectively
Performance
- Maximum speed: 71 mph; 62 kn (114 km/h)
- Roaming speed: 63 mph; 55 kn (101 km/h)
- Range: 4,000Ã, mi (3,476Ã, nmi; 6,437Ã, km)
Further reading
- Hammack, Bill (2017). Fatal Flight: The Real Great Last Airship of Great Britain . Articulate Noise Books. ISBN 978-1-945441-01-1 . Retrieved February 6 2018 .
See also
- List of plane crashes
- RAF Cardington
References
Note
Quote
Bibliography
External links
Source of the article : Wikipedia
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